Политические проблемы сотрудничества между Организацией по запрещению химического оружия и химической промышленностью в режиме Конвенции о запрещении химического оружия
Диссертация посвящена анализу эволюции взаимодействия химической промышленности с Организацией по запрещению химического оружия в рамках Конвенции о запрещении химического оружия. В работе большое внимание уделяется основным политическим проблемам, с которыми сталкиваются химическая промышленность и ОЗХО в процессе сотрудничества. По итогам работы также рассматривается потенциал химической промышленности в решении данных политических проблем и будущем усилении режима КХО.
The Chemical Weapons Convention (hereinafter CWC / the Convention) is an international agreement on the control of chemical weapons that prohibits the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and any chemical toxic substances. Based on the provisions of the CWC, the field of chemical safety encompasses both political issues at the level of governments of states and issues of interaction of these governments with the chemical industry — it is the representatives of the chemical industry that are one of the main suppliers of chemical materials, their precursors and chemical weapons, as well as the main by the customer of the CWC, whose conditions affect the activities of chemical enterprises.
In recent years, more and more information has appeared about industrial accidents, the use of chemical weapons or other toxic chemicals against the military and civilian population. The risks of illegal production and storage of chemical weapons and their transfer to third parties, such as terrorist organizations, are still high, despite the fact that the CWC provides for complete disarmament, the destruction of all accumulated stocks of chemical weapons, and a ban on their re-emergence. Accordingly, the chemical industry is the first suspect in violation of the terms of the CWC.
The terms of the Convention provide for such a concept as a “chemical facility”. However, the problems arising in the interaction of the governments of the CWC States Parties with chemical facilities do not cover one or several specific enterprises but the entire chemical industry, including going beyond the national level.
The chemical industry is directly and indirectly related to the field of chemical safety. Under the terms of the Convention, there is a clear definition of chemical security and chemical safety. The CWC defines chemical safety as measures to prevent the inadvertent release of toxic chemicals into the environment and to mitigate exposure if such events occur. At the same time, chemical safety includes such disciplines as occupational safety, public safety, process safety, environmental safety, consumer safety and transport safety. Many of these disciplines are also addressed by different international conventions and a number of international organizations. In turn, chemical security refers to measures to prevent the deliberate release of toxic chemicals and to mitigate exposure if such events occur. In a broader context, it also includes a policy to prevent attempts to acquire toxic chemicals or precursors of chemical weapons.
The chemical industry is actively developing both from the point of view of the scientific and technical sphere, and from the point of view of involvement in political processes of states, including in the international arena within the framework of the OPCW. The goal and main research question of this work is to identify the political problems and aspects that arise in the cooperation of the OPCW with the chemical industry under the CWC regime.
Based on the set goal, the following tasks were identified:
1. To outline the role that the chemical industry played in the initial CWC negotiations and how this role has evolved.
2. To examine what the deepening interaction of the chemical industry with OPCW representatives has led to.
3. To identify the channels and mechanisms of interaction between the chemical industry and national authorities at the state and international levels.
4. To highlight the political problems that arise in the interaction of the chemical industry and the governments of the States Parties within the framework of the OPCW.
5. To analyze the extent to which the OPCW activities are complete and sufficient for the further development of cooperation with the chemical industry.
6. To determine what the chemical industry can do within the OPCW to strengthen the CWC regime.
In this way, the relevance of the presented topic lies in the fact that against the background of increasing geopolitical differences between the CWC States Parties, problems in the interaction of the chemical industry with the OPCW representatives are becoming more acute. The chemical industry, as one of the parties involved in the implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention, is interested in solving these problems and strengthening the Convention regime.
The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that this work covers the cooperation of the chemical industry with government officials on political issues both at the state level and at the level of the international community. At the same time, the work provides an extensive analysis of the role of the chemical industry in solving political problems and strengthening the CWC regime.
Based on the analysis of the source base, it can be concluded that the cooperation of the chemical industry with government officials within the CWC at the international level has been little researched. It is important to note that the analysis of regulatory legal acts (the Convention on the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, reports and agreements on the results of meetings, conferences and meetings of subordinate bodies of the OPCW, etc.), personal interviews with direct or indirect participants in the negotiations on the CWC played an important role in the study (Dr. Ralph Trapp, Ambassador Batsanov Sergey Borisovich).
Among the source base, another important group is the official sites of chemical companies (for example, Icmesa Company), and the official sites of the Chemical Industry Associations of the CWC States Parties. This group of sources made it possible to form a clearer vision of the positions of representatives of the chemical industry, primarily regarding the issues of combating common threats and challenges, as well as how they see the future of ensuring the CWC regime.
Based on the analysis of sources and literature, it can be concluded that most of the work is related to the technical issues of interaction between the chemical industry and the national authorities and the OPCW. Some researchers and authors pay more attention to the role of the OPCW, ignoring the changing position of the chemical industry and its influence on some political processes within states, which accordingly affects the decision-making process in the international community. In addition, the studied literature and sources overlook the fact that the chemical industry has gone through certain stages of development in order to be able to fully interact with the national governments of their states.
The topic of the presented work was tested in the framework of the international research competition of the South Korean Institute of Advanced Technology (KAIST) and was published in the annual collection of this university in March 2021.
The presented study consists of three main chapters, the collective conclusions of which represent the answer to the main research question of the entire study. The first chapter presents a vision of the role and place of the chemical industry representatives in the initial negotiations for the CWC in the 1990s and what the main issues related to the chemical industry were raised on the agenda. The second chapter presents an analysis of the current state of the Convention on the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in the modern realities of international relations, what political problems are facing the chemical industry and the OPCW in the framework of their interaction with each other through certain channels and communication mechanisms. Finally, the third and final chapter explores the potential of the chemical industry to support the CWC regime in the future. Thus, this work provides a comprehensive analysis of the role of the chemical industry in the chemical safety system at the national and international levels, as well as an analysis of the problems and opportunities for the future development of the regime of the Chemical Weapons Convention.
OPCW official documents
• Convention on the prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and on their destruction (CWC) [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. 2005 (1993). URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/CWC/CWC_en.pdf.
• Clarifications on Schedules of Chemicals [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. URL: https://www.opcw.org/chemical-weapons-convention/annexes/annex-chemicals/annex-chemicals.
• Review of verification measures [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. URL:
• Protection of Confidential Information [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. URL:
• Decision: Attendance and Participation by the Chemical Industry and the Scientific Community at the Twenty-fourth Session of the Conference of the States Parties [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. 2019. URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2019/11/c24dec02%28e%29.pdf.
• Report of the first meeting of the scientific advisory board temporary working group on verification [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. 2013. URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/SAB/en/sab-20-wp02__e_.pdf.
• Note by the Technical Secretariat: Needs Assessment and Best Practices: Chemical Safety and Security Management [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. 2020. URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020/02/s-1842-2020%28e%29.pdf.
• Report of the Preparatory Commission: Safety and Confidentiality [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. 1994. URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/PC_series/PC-VI/en/pcvi22.pdf.
• Working Group B, Expert Group of Confidentiality (1st interim Report). // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). PC-VI/B/WP.1 dated January 14, 1994.
• Report of the Working Group B “Expert group on chemical industry issues: Chairman’s summary of the combined meeting with the chemical industry // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). PC-XI/B/WP.10 dated June 27, 1995, the Hague.
• Note by the Director-General: Engaging the chemical industry associations [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. 2017. URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/CSP/C-22/en/c22dg18_e_.pdf.
• Three Types of Inspections. Fact Sheet no. 5 [Electronic Source] // Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) [Official site]. URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/Fact_Sheets/English/Fact_Sheet_5_-_Inspections.pdf.
b) Official documents of the States Parties
• Bill Clinton. Message from the President of the USA about the CWC // First Session of 103d Congress. DIANE Publishing, 1998, 662 p.
• Shulgin A.V. Interview with the Russian Ambassador to the Netherlands about the OPCW decision on the defeat of Syria in the rights under the CWC [Electronic Source] // Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs [Official site]. URL: https://www.mid.ru/organizacia-po-zapreseniu-himiceskogo-oruzia/-/asset_publisher/km9HkaXMTium/content/id/4706410.
• Joint Statement by the Foreign Ministers of France and Germany [Electronic Source] // Ministry of Foreing Affairs of France [Official site]. URL: https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/russia/news/article/joint-statement-by-the-foreign-ministers-of-france-and-germany-alexei-navalny.
• 10th Regional Meeting of National Authorities of States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention in Africa [Electronic Source] // Department of Peace and Security, African Union [Official site]. URL: https://www.peaceau.org/en/article/10th-regional-meeting-of-national-authorities-of-states-parties-to-the-chemical-weapons-convention-in-africa.
• Baroness Goldie. Chemical Weapons Convention – Declaration of Protective Programme for 2019 [Electronic Source] // United Kingdom Parliament [Official site]. URL: https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-statements/detail/2020-05-20/HLWS243.
c) Interviews
• Batsanov, S. B., the Director of the Geneva Office of the Pugwash Movement. Interviewed by Alina Ilinykh. September 16, 2020.
• Trapp, Ralf, International Disarmament Consultant, chemical and biological weapons arms control and security, Chessenaz, France Interviewed by Alina Ilinykh. September 14, 2020.
List of Secondary sources
• Research articles
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• Peter van Ham, Ellahi M. The OPCW’s Future: Remaining Fit for Purpose // Chemical Weapons Challenges Ahead: The Past and Future of the OPCW, The Hague, NIIR ‘Clingendael’, 2017, P. 53—78.
• Feakes D. Challenges in the implementation of export controls under the Chemical Weapons Convention // Treaty Enforcement and International Cooperation in Criminal Matters, The Hague, TMC Asser Press, P. 338.
• Feakes D. Evaluating the CWC verification system // Peace Palace Library, 2002, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/ebooks/files/UNIDIR_pdf-art1822.pdf. (Date of last access: 17.03.2021).
• Kozin V. P. The Hague Solution: OPCW Dangerous Prerogative // MGIMO portal, 2018, [Electronic source], URL: https://mgimo.ru/about/news/experts/gaagskoe-reshenie-opasnye-prerogativy-ozkho/. (Date of last access: 17.03.2021).
• Feakes D. Keeping Peaceful Uses: Article VI // The Book of the Creation of OPCW, 2013, P. 159—178.
• Tabassi L. National Implementation: Article VII // The Book of the Creation of OPCW, 2013, P. 179—192.
• Rautenbach J., Tabassi L. Legal Aspects of the Preparatory Commission for the OPCW as an International Organization // The Creation of OPCW, 2013, P. 69 — 79.
• Perroy A. The contribution of the chemical industry to the CWC // OPCW Synthesis, 2000, P. 4—5.
• Mathews R., Taubman A. Preparing for implementation of the CWC: Progress during 1993 // Verification 1994: Arms Control, Peacekeeping and the Environment, London: Brassey’s, 1994, P. 111—128.
• Ilinykh A., Involving chemical industry towards securing the CWC regime: a new future or a challenge? // Behind Science, KAIST University, Vol. 10, 2021, P. 52—57.
b) Monographs
• Trapp R. Compliance management under the Chemical Weapons Convention // UNIDIR, 2018, 50 p.
• Bothe M. The New Chemical Weapons Convention: Implementation and Prospects, Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1998, 613 p.
• Walter A., Scott D. The Compliance Provisions in the CWC // Geneva, 1995, [Electronic source], URL: https://walterdorn.net/17-compliance-provisions-in-the-chemical-weapons-convention. (Date of last access: 10.04.2021).
• Timmerman K. The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq // London: Fourth Estate, 1992, 576 p.
• Wiegele T. The Clandestine Building of Libya’s Chemical Weapons Factory. A Study in International Collusion // Southern Illinois University Press, 1992, 216 p.
c) Research papers and NGO’s publications
• Compliance with the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction // The report of the Bureau of Arms control, Verification and Compliance, 2019, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.state.gov/compliance-with-the-convention-on-the-prohibition-of-the-development-production-stockpiling-and-use-of-chemical-weapons-and-on-their-destruction-condition-10c-report-2019/. (Date of last access: 06.04.2021).
• McEachin D. Routine and challenge: two pillars of verification // The CBW Conventions Bulletin, no. 39 (March), 1998, P. 1—3.
• OPCW Conference on International Cooperation and Chemical Safety and Security // The OPCW, 2011, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/PDF/IYC_Conference_Outcomes.pdf. (Date of last access: 06.04.2021).
• Meier O. CWC Review Conference Avoids Difficult Issues // Arms Control Association, 2008, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2008-06/cwc-review-conference-avoids-difficult-issues. (Date of last access: 15.04.2021).
• Chemical Industry and the National Authorities Further Plan Closer Cooperation // The OPCW, 2018, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.opcw.org/media-centre/news/2018/10/chemical-industry-and-national-authorities-further-plan-closer. (Date of last access: 27.05.2021).
• Accident Summary. “Icmesa chemical company, Seveso, Italy”. July 10, 1976 // Health and Safety Executive, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.hse.gov.uk/comah/sragtech/caseseveso76.htm. (Date of last access: 10.04.2021).
• ACC and Cefic Views on the Future Operation of the OPCW // The OPCW, 2011, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/event_photos/2012/Tarnow/Cefic-2011-05_Industry_Paper_on_Future_of_OPCW_in_the_context_of_security_and_non-proliferation.pdf. (Date of last access: 25.05.2021).
• Xavier A-N. Export Control Handbook for Chemicals // JRC, EU Commision, European Atomic Energy Community, 2019, [Electronic source], URL: https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC117839/kjna29879enn.pdf. (Date of last access: 19.03.2021).
• Export Controls on Chemicals and Biological Agents Updated, Sandler, Travis and Rosenberg Trade Report, 2018. URL: https://www.strtrade.com/news-publications-export-controls-chemical-biological-Australia-Group-040418.html. (Date of last access: 19.03.2021).
• Needs and Best Practices on Chemical Safety and Security Management // The OPCW, 2016, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/ICA/ICB/OPCW_Report_on_Needs_and_Best_Practices_on_Chemical_Safety_and_Security_ManagementV3-2_1.2.pdf. (Date of last access: 19.03.2021).
• Daoudi M., Trapp R. the Future of the CWC: Policy and Planning Aspects // SIPRI Policy Paper, № 35, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2013, 35 p.
• Verification and Compliance with the CWC // Bureau of Verification, Compliance and Implementation, 2005, [Electronic source], URL: https://2001-2009.state.gov/t/vci/rls/prsrl/57328.htm. (Date of last access: 25.03.2021).
• Exports of Dual – Use Chemicals to Syria: an Assessment of EU Export Controls // EU Non-Proliferation Consortium, 2014, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/EUNPC_no-35.pdf. (Date of last access: 30.04.2021).
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d) Publications in newspapers and magazines
• Dubina G. The OPCW is becoming more and more toxic // Kommersant newspaper, No. 221, 02.12.2020, [Electronic source], URL: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4594681. (Date of last access: 15.05.2021).
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• Lele A. Challenges for the CWC // Strategic Analysis, vol. 35, no. 5 (Summer), 2011, P. 752—756.
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• Broughton E. The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review // Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source. No.4, Art. 6, 2005, [Electronic source], URL: https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-069X-4-6. (Date of last access: 15.04.2021).
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