Американская политика в отношении СССР и России в XX-XXI веках: доктринальный аспект
Диссертация посвящена изучению места, занимаемого Россией во внешнеполитических доктринах США на протяжении истории. Цель этой работы – определить характер эволюции восприятия России как актора международных отношений разными президентскими администрациями США. Одной из важнейших задач было сравнение современных внешнеполитических доктрин США с доктринами времен «холодной войны». Большое внимание уделено анализу возможностей американского правительства в проведении политики сдерживания России в настоящее время. Основными источниками исследования выступили речи президентов США, документы Белого дома и Конгресса.
The theme of Master’s dissertation is evaluation of US foreign policy towards Russian Federation from a perspective of the doctrinal aspect in past and in modernity.
Relevance of the topic: US-Russian relations have centuries of history with their ups and downs. There were the times when our countries were close allies in the struggle against British domination, nonetheless world history had moments of American-Russian irreconcilable confrontation for hegemony in world arena. Perhaps, the best characteristic of this relationship can be described by words of Jason Kornwitz that “US-Russia relations have always been on a roller coaster”, thereby ambiguity between Moscow and Washington is not something new or abnormal about it as some experts exaggerate assuming that current US-Russian relations are “in the worst state that have ever been”.
Nevertheless, there is a clear understanding that bilateral ties between nations are in grave tensions nowadays. Many political scholars from both sides opt for the view of George F. Kennan, who is known as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War and Mr. Kennan has claimed that “it is the beginning of a new cold war”. Unfortunately, the capacity to rebuild friendly and profitable partnership after collapse of the USSR was wasted by many mistakes of both Governments, therefore world community observes a great recurrence to the rhetoric of “good old times”. Considering this fact, the polemic in US Senate figures out that containment policy towards Russian Federation is a very tempting framework for thinking about the post–Cold War world.
The “Containment” was a key stone for US foreign policy towards Soviet Union during Cold War and the foundational ground of this policy was formed by US Presidential doctrines. This method of forming world understanding was conducted by President Monroe in XIX century and it took roots in US Government’s practice, becoming very influential tool for American foreign affairs.
It is fair enough to notice that implementation of US Presidential doctrines has increased in XX-XXI centuries, playing really significant role for American establishment. As system of the world became more complex after World War II, the United Stated had to react in a proper way to these changes and challenges they faced, therefore state machinery needed to be more scrupulous, flexible and adaptive. US presidential administrations of Cold War elaborated an efficient strategy that bested communistic point of view on world outlook: “This single, simple, and continuous priority provided a kind of ballast, a center of gravity for American Cold War strategy: whatever the oscillations between parties or between approaches, this fundamental objective always remained”. Precisely because of this unity of purpose, the United States managed to establish realistic and pragmatic foreign policy towards Soviet Union, which could successfully challenge Soviet ambitions in the world, despite some grave failures such as Vietnam War or Bay of Pigs invasion.
Regarding past experience, American Government has the ideas how to implement operative containment policy. Many influential political figures in Washington now stand for renewal of Russia’s retaining strategy and it seems administrations of Post-Cold War period are ready to follow this direction. Starting with Ukrainian crisis in 2014, US Government has changed partner’s like rhetoric with Russia to rigid one to make Moscow reconsider its “unfriendly” foreign policy. Notwithstanding, a huge criticism comes up to modern American establishment, proclaiming that their approach “limits strategic flexibility particularly regarding the ability to adapt to changing conditions, and that such generic policies incur high political costs”. It may seem that US Government is only on the early stage of forming “Russian Containment 2.0”, however the fact is evident: they will keep on establishing new foreign policy, which is able to compete in modern conditions.
The object and subject. US-Russian relations can be determined as an object of this research, in its turn, US presidential doctrines that forms US strategy towards Russia is considered as a subject of current dissertation.
The definition of the principle concepts. Since we are to comprehend the phenomenon of US presidential doctrines, it is important to provide a definition for this term. According to Oxford dictionary, a doctrine can be defined as a set of instructions, beliefs, principles or positions that forms a branch of knowledge or a belief system. The term has come from Latin and has roots with the word catechism – a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in the Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts, thus a doctrine is related to religious principles, proclaimed by church. When we speak about the international relations study, a doctrine can be thought of being as a general statement of political leader, which forms a belief system about official foreign policy or military affairs towards a particular country or world/region. It is worth noting that there is distinction between political doctrine and political ideology. As Daniel Șandru claims, “ideology is more general than a doctrine, being a universal way of interpreting reality, from which derives the interpretation of political reality and within the framework of contemporary political reality, ideology stands in the proximity of political philosophy but is not confounded with it”. Thus, we consider a doctrine as not an ideology itself, but as method to form this ideology.
Furthermore, there is another significant concept in this study – Containment policy. It is largely acknowledged George F. Kennan gave recommendations in his “Long Telegram” for US Department, how the United States had to act towards Soviet Union, however he formulated the idea of containment in his another work “The sources of Soviet conduct”: “it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies. It is important to note, however, that such a policy has nothing to do with outward histrionics: with threats or blustering or superfluous gestures of outward “toughness.”… it is a sine qua none of successful dealing with Russia that the foreign government in question should remain at all times cool and collected and that its demands on Russian policy should be put forward in such a manner as to leave the way open for a compliance not too detrimental to Russian prestige”.
Last but not least term is security dilemma. In the book “Political Realism and Political Idealism” John H. Herz mentioned security dilemma, explaining it: “Groups or individuals living in constellation must be concerned about their security from being attacked, subjected, dominated or annihilated by other groups or individuals. Striving to attain security from such attack, they are driven to acquire more and more power in order to escape the impact of power of others. This, in turn, renders the others more insecure and compels them to prepare for the worst. Since none can ever feel entirely secure…, the vicious circle of security and power accumulation is on”. In other words, group (state) always feels itself vulnerable, thus, there is always need to strengthen safeness, at the same time, other groups see how it increases its power, so they start to feel insecure and strengthen their security.
Research question of this Master’s thesis is how influential is the impact of US presidential doctrines in forming US foreign policy towards particular country (in our case, towards Russia) or world/region in past and in modernity. The central objective of this dissertation is the comparison of contemporary US foreign policy doctrines with the doctrines of the Cold War.
The aim is to determine a nature of evolution of Russia’s perception as an actor of international relations by different US presidential administrations.
Objectives. To achieve the aim, the following objectives have been set:
• To make overview of history of US-Russian relations and stress out significant moments that have influenced gravely on development of ties between two nations;
• To track down the changes of American-Russian relations in Post-Cold War period (from cooperation to tensions);
• To analyze US Doctrines towards Soviet Union and Russian Federation and find out what tendencies and methods affecting on forming Russian retaining policy in past and in current moment;
• To reveal the goals of US Government they pursue in world arena nowadays;
• To determine a legal framework of the United States, which provides modern stage of Containment policy.
The chronical frameworks of the study cover the huge period of history, starting the point when first official contacts between Russian Empire and the United States began during American Revolution. However, it must be admitted our interest is related with Cold War period due to this has been “the golden age” for US presidential doctrines, and also with Post-Cold war era as this period is a turning point of relationship between Washington and Moscow.
Methodology. This study has strong ties with the historical method in chapters one and two. Basically, this method was used for defining the tendencies of development of US-Russian relations and for examining the important moments that influence the most on the process of evolution of connections between Washington and Moscow. In chapter three, comparative method comes in handy to determine the capacities of modern doctrines and doctrines of Cold War era. The speeches and statements held by US presidents of Cold War and Post-Cold War periods undergone the content analysis. Finally, the system analysis was implemented throughout the study in order to provide better explanations.
Theoretical approach. During our research, we have provided the important concept of Neorealism approach – security dilemma, formulated by John H. Herz. The concept of security dilemma was applied to understand the logic of Trump’s current US foreign policy that is directed to military build-up. Furthermore, to comprehend the realities of Containment policy, we are to examine the past experience of such political experts like George F. Kennan, who has been representative of pragmatic political realism. Last but not least, we have implemented the discourse analysis that gives better understanding of the conditions and factors, which influence the political direction of modern US presidential doctrines.
Analysis of existing literature. US Presidential doctrines is not so new phenomenon for international relations, notwithstanding this aspect remains almost uncovered in academic field. There is a very huge monograph of Heiko Meiertöns that makes attempt to provide deep analysis of Cold War doctrines. In his book “The doctrines of US security policy: an evaluation under international law”, Professor Meiertöns examined the capacity of past doctrines, giving the evaluation of their legal framework, position of every US president on the use of the force and acceptability of doctrine’s implementation under international law. An important note is that there is variety of works about US foreign policy during Cold War, however, when we speak about doctrines of Post-Cold War, we have found out a lack of knowledge concerning this field.
To comprehend how US-Russian relations developed after collapse of the Soviet Union, our study got an inspiration from the work of Angela E. Stent “The limits of partnership: US-Russian relations in the twenty-first century”. Angela E. Stent is a foreign policy expert specializing in US and European relations with Russia and Russian foreign policy. She is Professor of Government at Georgetown University and director of its Center for Eurasian, Russian, and East European Studies, thus her knowledge in US-Russian ties is inestimable for our analysis. In her research, she examined a big period of US-Russian connections from Clinton administration to Obama’s tenure and estimated possibilities of forming friendly like atmosphere between Washington and Moscow and what insurmountable contradictions they have that can be a grave obstacle to forget “good old times” of Cold War era.
“The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism” is a book by the Canadian author and social activist Naomi Klein. She is well-known for her strong criticism of a corporate globalization and of neoliberal free market, advocated by Milton Friedman. Her analysis of shock therapy implemented in Russian dimension after collapse of USSR is quite useful due to she provides facts that set Russian people against the United States. Naomi Klein believes that Russian nation is sure American Government destroys Russian economy to weaken our country, notwithstanding the problem has been about not taking into account the specifics of Russian reality that are not suitable for Chicago school’s shock therapy. Considering this fact, professor Klein gives us understanding what push Moscow and Russian people into some mistrust and suspicion towards American nation.
In chapter three, we raise a question about Obama’s policy, which relies seriously on “soft power”. To get to the idea what is wrong about Obama’s approach, our research has references to the work of Colin S. Gray, British-American strategic thinker and professor of International Relations and Strategic Studies at the University of Reading, where he is the director of the Centre for Strategic Studies. Professor Gray is gravely critical to the possibility of replacing hard power by soft power, though he acknowledges that it becomes more difficult and more expensive to implement a military strength in modern realities. However, according to Colin S. Gray, it does not mean hard power should be diminished to secure some political decisions. What is more, soft power cannot be thought of as an instrument of policy as it really “depends upon the uncoerced choices of foreigners”, unlike the hard power, which is totally depends upon the decisions of policymakers.
Our dissertation is strongly related with neorealism, thus we are to use the knowledge and experience of the main founders of this approach like Kenneth Waltz, Robert Jervis and John Mearsheimer. The huge attention was paid to the phenomenon of security dilemma and how these scholars considered this subject. The vast attention was paid on a work by Robert Jervis “Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma”, where he made attempt to solve a stalemate created by debate of defensive realists (Waltz) vs. offensive realists (Mearsheimer) about inevitability of conflict in case of security dilemma. We also took into account the works made by realists like George F. Kennan and John H. Herz. John H. Herz taught International Relations from a critical, Realist perspective and elaborated the term security dilemma, which neorealists use even now in their researches. The contribution of George Kennan is priceless for realistic approach and for US foreign policy during Cold War; he has inspired many US presidents in forming their doctrines towards Soviet Union, thus it is unavoidable to examine his bibliography to comprehend the logic of containment policy.
The novelty of the study. Overview of literature shows that doctrinal aspect is not researched so well, especially considering the modern stage of doctrine’s implementation. This study provides a comprehensive study, by taking into consideration the existing publications on the matter and analyzing current trends, documents, speeches and discourse, using as many open sources on the topic as possible. Furthermore, modern tendencies demonstrate that containment policy towards Russia gains huge support in current American establishment, thus we are to find out what forms and methods US foreign policy will obtain at the moment.
Primary sources overview. To conduct the research, the large number of sources were analyzed. Official documents. Our research contains the analysis of American legal framework and international and bilateral treaties, which have provided a strong impact on international relations. We examined the official statements of US presidents in past and in modernity and their declarations concerning the state of US-Russian relations. Documents like National Security Strategy of Obama and Trump have the huge priority for analysis of current US foreign policy towards Russia. Speeches of US presidents also have great significance for current dissertation, where they have made statements about status of foreign affairs concerning Russia.
Materials of the digital media and online publications were also widely used in this Master’s thesis. Especially, it has a serious relevance for modern stage of world due to many analytics and critics use Mass-media coverage for expressing their view about US foreign policy. Such news agencies like RIA Novosti, the Guardian, BBC, Reuters, The New York Times, The Atlantic and so on play a very considerable role in acquaintance of people with trends US Government use now in forming their strategy to the current agenda. What is more, these informational resources provide the full texts of the majority of presidents’ speeches.
Interviews, conducted by news agencies or personally by author, also became a source of valuable information for this dissertation.
The structure of the work corresponds to the set objectives. Thus, the first chapter provides historical overview of American-Russian relations before Cold War, revealing the ambiguity of connection between two nations and analyzes Cold War doctrines as an example of how to form an efficient containment policy towards Soviet Union. In the second chapter, we are to examine US-Russian ties in Post-Cold War period for determining the reasons why a friendly partnership between Washington and Moscow has made a great recurrence to grave tensions. Finally, the third section is very important for our research as we are to give a deep analysis of modern doctrines of Obama and Trump that form a new direction for US foreign policy towards Russia. An attempt to predict how modern “Containment 2.0” will be developed by American establishment and what results they can achieve by these means has also been made.
PRIMARY SOURCES
I. Official documents
I.I International and bilateral treaties
• The Memorandum on Security Assurances, known as the Budapest Memorandum, in connection with Ukraine’s accession to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, signed Dec. 5, 1994. http://www.pircenter.org/media/content/files/12/13943175580.pdf Accessed February 12, 2018;
• The Treaty of Portsmouth and the Russo-Japanese War, 1904–1905. The Office of the Historian, Milestones: 1899–1913. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/portsmouth-treaty Accessed January 15, 2018;
• Declarations by France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, and Russia accepting United States proposal to «open door” policy in China, September 6, 1899-March 20, 1900. Web Guides, Primary Documents in American History. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/us-treaties/bevans/m-ust000001-0278.pdf Accessed January 14, 2018;
• President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points (8 January, 1918). The Avalon Project; Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/wilson14.asp Accessed January 15, 2018.
I.II Legislative data of the United States
• Convention Between the United States of America and His Majesty the Emperor of All the Russias, Relative to Navigating, Fishing, Etc., in the Pacific Ocean. Concluded April 17, 1824; ratifications exchanged January 11, 1825; proclaimed January 12, 1825. http://www.explorenorth.com/library/history/bl-rusus1825.htm Accessed December 25, 2017;
• The Senate’s ratification of the Treaty with Russia (April 9, 1867). Web Guides, Primary Documents in American History. https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Alaska.html Accessed January 14, 2018;
• Executive Order — Blocking Property of Certain Persons Contributing to the Situation in Ukraine. The White House: Office of the Press Secretary, March 6, 2014. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/06/executive-order-blocking-property-certain-persons-contributing-situation Accessed March 7, 2018.
I.III National Strategies of the United States
• National Defense Strategy of the United States of America 2018. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, January 20, 2018. https://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf Accessed May 10, 2018;
• National Security Strategy of the President of the United States of America. Washington D.C.: The White House, May, 2010. http://nssarchive.us/NSSR/2010.pdf Accessed April 25, 2018;
• National Security Strategy of the President of the United States. Washington D.C.: The White House, December, 2015. http://nssarchive.us/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/2015.pdf Accessed April 25, 2018;
• National Security Strategy of the President of the United States. Washington D.C.: The White House, December, 2017. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf. Accessed May 5, 2018.
I.IV Declarations, speeches, addresses and statements
• Monroe Doctrine (December 2, 1823). The Avalon Project; Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/monroe.asp Accessed January 20, 2018;
• Appeal of US Secretary of State, Henry Lewis Stimson, to Governments of Japan and the Republic of China (January 7, 1932). Archive of the United States History. http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1500.html. Accessed January 20, 2018;
• The Welles Declaration (June 23, 1940). Digital Archive International History Declassified.http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/144967.pdf?v=965c0cce7fd4fdca8cdceebe85fe030c Accessed January 21, 2018;
• The Johnson Doctrine : The American Presidency Project. Bartleby.com. https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Johnson-Doctrine-F3AGS6FMYRPS Accessed February 5, 2018;
• Address of the President to Congress, Recommending Assistance to Greece and Turkey, (March 12, 1947) // Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/doctrine/large/documents/index.php?documentid=5-9&pagenumber=1 Accessed January 22, 2018;
• Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East (January 5, 1957). The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=11007 Accessed January 22, 2018;
• Inaugural Address of John F. Kennedy (January 20, 1961). The Avalon Project; Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library. https://web.archive.org/web/20070514235348/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/kennedy.htm Accessed February 5, 2018;
• Public Papers of the Presidents, Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1966, vol. I, pp. 472–473;
• Speech of President Richard Nixon in Guam conference (July 25, 1969). Linn Benton community college. http://cf.linnbenton.edu/artcom/social_science/clarkd/upload/Nixon%20Doctrine.pdf Accessed February 7, 2018;
• US President Richard Nixon: Address to the Nation on the War in Vietnam (November 3, 1969) // Public Papers of the Presidents, Richard Nixon, 1969;
• Address of the President to Congress considering the situation in Afghanistan (January 23, 1980). Linn Benton community college. http://cf.linnbenton.edu/artcom/social_science/clarkd/upload/CARTER,%20Reagan,%20Powell%20DOCTRINEs.pdf Accessed February 5, 2018;
• Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union (February 6, 1985). The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=38069 Accessed February 8, 2018;
• 1994 State Of The Union Address of Bill Clinton (January 25, 1994). The Washington Post Company, 1998. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/states/docs/sou94.htm Accessed February 12, 2018;
• George W. Bush: 9/11 Address to the Nation delivered 11 September, Washington, D.C.: White House, September 11, 2001. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gwbush911addresstothenation.htm Accessed February 15, 2018;
• Speech of Vladimir Putin and the Following Discussion at the Munich Conference on Security Policy. Kremlin: Official Internet Resources of the President of Russia February 10, 2007. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/24034 Accessed February 20, 2018;
• Statement by the President on ISIL. The White House President Barack Obama, Speeches and Remarks, September 10, 2014. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/10/statement-president-isil-1 Accessed March 3, 2018;
• Joint Statement from the Department Of Homeland Security and Office of the Director of National Intelligence on Election Security. Official Website of the Department of Homeland Security, October 7, 2016. https://www.dhs.gov/news/2016/10/07/joint-statement-department-homeland-security-and-office-director-national Accessed March 12, 2018;
• Remarks by President Obama in Address to the United Nations General Assembly. The White House President Barack Obama, September 24, 2014. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/24/remarks-president-obama-address-united-nations-general-assembly Accessed March 13, 2018.
II. Materials of the digital media and online publications
II.I News reports
• Baker Peter, For Obama, Syria Chemical Attack Shows Risk of ‘Deals With Dictators’. The New York Times, April 7, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/09/us/politics/obama-syria-chemical-weapons.html Accessed February 26, 2018;
• Democratic Presidential Debate on NPR. The New York Times, December 7, 2007. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/04/us/politics/04transcript-debate.html?pagewanted=7 Accessed April 20, 2018;
• Dionne E.J., The Obama Doctrine in Action. The Washington Post, April 16, 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/04/15/AR2009041502902.html Accessed April 27, 2018;
• Duranty Walter, United States Recognizes Soviet, Exacting Pledge on Propaganda; Bullitt Named First Ambassador. New York Times, November 17, 1933. https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1116.html Accessed January 17, 2018;
• Eckel Mike, Russia’s Medvedev Says U.S. Sanctions Bill Ends Hope For Better Ties. RadioFreeEurope, August 3, 2017. https://www.rferl.org/a/trump-signs-russia-sanctions-bill/28655189.html Accessed March 18, 2018;
• Elder Miriam, Putin accepts nomination for Russian presidential run. The Guardian, September 24, 2011. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/24/purin-proposed-russian-president-medvedev Accessed February 26, 2018;
• Excerpts of Joe Biden speech. BBC News, February 7, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7876677.stm Accessed February 23, 2018;
• Exclusive: Read the Inauguration Day letter Obama left for Trump. CNN Politics, September 5, 2017. https://edition.cnn.com/2017/09/03/politics/obama-trump-letter-inauguration-day/index.html Accessed May 18, 2018;
• Friedman Thomas L., «Foreign Affairs; Now a Word From X.» The New York Times, May 2, 1998. https://www.nytimes.com/1998/05/02/opinion/foreign-affairs-now-a-word-from-x.html Accessed May 16, 2018;
• Gardner Timothy, Can’t Please Everyone: Trump Energy Policy Riles Competing Sectors. Reuters, January 8, 2018. https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-energy/cant-please-everyone-trump-energy-policy-riles-competing-sectors-idUKKBN1EU13Z Accessed May 10, 2018;
• Gardner Timothy, Trump ‘Energy Dominance’ Policy Pits Washington against Moscow. Reuters, February 9, 2018. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-oil-record-geopolitics/trump-energy-dominance-policy-pits-washington-against-moscow-idUSKBN1FT0OE Accessed May 7, 2018;
• George Bush Sr Calls Trump a ‘Blowhard’ and Voted for Clinton. BBC News, November 4, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-41871958 Accessed May 20, 2018;
• Harding Luke, Russia Threatening New Cold War over Missile Defence. The Guardian, April 11, 2007. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/apr/11/usa.topstories3 Accessed February 16, 2018.
• Hollingsworth Barbara, Critics Say Obama’s Clean Power Plan Would Increase ‘Energy Poverty’ in US. CNSNews.com, April 27, 2016. https://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/barbara-hollingsworth/critics-say-obamas-clean-power-plan-would-increase-energy-poverty Accessed May 2, 2018;
• Joscelyn Thomas, US Counterterrorism Efforts in Syria: A Winning Strategy?. FDD’s Long War Journal, September 29, 2015. https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/09/us-counterterrorism-efforts-in-syria-a-winning-strategy.php Accessed March 3, 2018;
• Kissinger Henry A., Shultz George P., Building on Common Ground With Russia. Washington Post, October 8, 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/10/07/AR2008100702439.html Accessed February 23, 2018;
• Koran Laura, “How Trump plans to arm the world with US weapons”. CNN Politics, April 19, 2018. https://edition.cnn.com/2018/04/19/politics/trump-us-arms-sales-policy/index.html Accessed May 21, 2018;
• Kornwitz, Jason, “The “Roller Coaster” Relationship between US, Russia.” News@Northeastern, March 28, 2017. https://news.northeastern.edu/2017/03/28/the-roller-coaster-relationship-between-us-russia/ Accessed May 15, 2018;
• Kosinski Michelle, Browne Ryan, US Will Provide Anti-tank Weapons to Ukraine, State Dept. Official Says. CNN, December 23, 2017. https://edition.cnn.com/2017/12/22/politics/us-ukraine-anti-tank-weapons-russia/index.html Accessed March 20, 2018;
• Kovalev Sergey, Suverenitet i internatsional’nye obyazannosti sotsialisticheskikh stran. Moscow: Pravda, September 26, 1968, p. 4.;
• Lavrov Sergei, it’s not Russia that is Destabilizing Ukraine. The Guardian, April 7, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/apr/07/sergei-lavrov-russia-stabilise-ukraine-west Accessed March 10, 2018;
• Liptak Kevin, Jones Athena, With Latest Jabs, Trump-Obama Relationship Reaches Historic Nastiness. CNN Politics, September 3, 2017. https://edition.cnn.com/2017/06/28/politics/trump-obama-relationship/index.html Accessed May 18, 2018;
• Medvedev’s Statement on South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The New York Times, August 26, 2008. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/27/world/europe/27medvedev.html Accessed February 22, 2018;
• Milman Oliver, Trump Administration Plans to Allow Oil and Gas Drilling off nearly All US Coast. The Guardian, January 4, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jan/04/trump-administration-plans-to-allow-oil-and-gas-drilling-off-nearly-all-us-coast Accessed May 7, 2018;
• Naylor Brian, Russia Hacked U.S. Power Grid — So What Will The Trump Administration Do About It?. NPR, March 23, 2018. https://www.npr.org/2018/03/23/596044821/russia-hacked-u-s-power-grid-so-what-will-the-trump-administration-do-about-it Accessed May 5, 2018;
• Obama: Leaving Iran Deal ‘Misguided’. CNN Politics, May 8, 2018. https://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/08/politics/barack-obama-iran-deal-trump/index.html Accessed May 15, 2018;
• Obama Signals Surrender on Crimea (March 28, 2014) // Forbes, March 28, 2014. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidadesnik/2014/03/28/obama-signals-surrender-on-crimea/#6f0041842a0f Accessed March 7, 2018;
• Obama’s Speech in Cairo. The New York Times, June 4, 2009. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/04/us/politics/04obama.text.html Accessed February 24, 2018;
• Oliphant Roland, Vladimir Putin: We Must Stop a Ukraine-style ‘Coloured Revolution’ in Russia. The Telegraph, November 20, 2014. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/ukraine/11243521/Vladimir-Putin-we-must-stop-a-Ukraine-style-coloured-revolution-in-Russia.html Accessed March 7, 2018;
• Popovich Nadja, Pierre-Louis Kendra, 67 Environmental Rules on the Way Out Under Trump. The New York Times, January 31, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/10/05/climate/trump-environment-rules-reversed.html Accessed May 17, 2018;
• President Bill Clinton’s Farewell Address. US News: A World Report, January 18, 2001. https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2017-01-09/president-bill-clintons-farewell-address-jan-18-2001 Accessed February 15, 2018;
• President Bush’s Second Inaugural Address. The Guardian, January 20, 2005. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/20/uselections2004.usa Accessed February 16, 2018;
• President Obama’s Remarks on the Situation in Ukraine. CNN Politics, February 28, 2014. https://edition.cnn.com/2014/02/28/politics/obama-remarks-on-ukraine/index.html Accessed March 4, 2018;
• Putin Calls Kosovo independence “Terrible Precedent”. The Sydney Morning Herald, February 23, 2008. https://www.smh.com.au/news/world/putin-calls-kosovo-independence-terrible-precedent/2008/02/23/1203467431503.html Accessed February 22, 2018;
• Roth Andrew, Russian Spy Poisoning: Theresa May Issues Ultimatum to Moscow. The Guardian, March 13, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/mar/12/russia-highly-likely-to-be-behind-poisoning-of-spy-says-theresa-may Accessed March 20, 2018;
• Rosenberg Steve, Ukraine Crisis: Protesters Declare Donetsk ‘Republic’. BBC News, April 7, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26919928 Accessed March 10, 2018;
• Roberts Kristin, Chambers Madeline, Gates dismisses Putin remarks as blunt spy talk. Reuters, February 11, 2007. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-usa/gates-dismisses-putin-remarks-as-blunt-spy-talk-idUSL1053774820070211 Accessed February 20, 2018;
• Ruff Abdul, Donald Trump Picks Businessman Rex Tillerson as His Foreign Minister to Improve Ties with Russia. Foreign Policy News, December 19, 2016. http://foreignpolicynews.org/2016/12/19/donald-trump-picks-businessman-rex-tillerson-foreign-minister-improve-ties-russia/ Accessed March 15, 2018;
• Russia and China Condemn New US Defence Strategy. RTE, January 20, 2018. https://www.rte.ie/news/us/2018/0120/934668-russia-china-condemn-a-new-us-defence-strategy/ Accessed May 17, 2018;
• Russia Says Skripal Poisoning Is in UK’s Benefit as It Is Distracting from Brexit. Thejournal.ie, April 2, 2018. http://www.thejournal.ie/skripal-poisoning-3936215-Apr2018/ Accessed March 20, 2018;
• «Russia’s PM Medvedev Says U.S.-Russia Relations ‘Worst in Memory’». The Moscow Times, November 30, 2017. https://themoscowtimes.com/news/russias-pm-medvedev-says-us-russia-relations-worst-in-memory-59765 Accessed May 15, 2018;
• Russia Threatens to Go Beyond Food Sanctions. Financial Times, August 7, 2014. https://www.ft.com/content/7d63dcb2-1e18-11e4-ab52-00144feabdc0 Accessed March 10, 2018;
• Russia Warns US Against Strikes on Islamic State in Syria. BBC News, Middle East, September 11, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29154481 Accessed March 4, 2018;
• Sanger David E., Broad William J., To Counter Russia, U.S. Signals Nuclear Arms Are Back in a Big Way. The New York Times, February 4, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/04/us/politics/trump-nuclear-russia.html Accessed May 12, 2018;
• Sanchez Ray, “Putin Boasts Military Might with Animation of Florida Nuke Strike”. CNN World, March 2, 2018. https://edition.cnn.com/2018/03/01/europe/putin-nuclear-missile-video-florida/index.html Accessed May 21, 2018;
• Stanglin Doug, Putin Slams Trump’s National Security Strategy as ‘Aggressive’. USA today, December 22, 2017. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/12/22/putin-slams-u-s-national-security-strategy-aggressive/976306001/ Accessed May 12, 2018;
• Syria Chemical Attack: US and Russia Fail to Reach UN Agreement as Tensions Rise. The Guardian, World, April 10, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/10/russia-hits-back-over-syria-chemical-attack-with-call-for-un-inquiry Accessed April 16, 2018;
• Syrian crisis: Russia Air Strikes ‘Strengthen IS’. BBC News, October 2, 2015. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34431027 Accessed March 4, 2018;
• Text of Bush’s Address to Nation on Gorbachev’s Resignation. The New York Times, 1991, December 25, 1991. http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/26/world/end-soviet-union-text-bush-s-address-nation-gorbachev-s-resignation.html Accessed February 10, 2018;
• Text of Mikhail Gorbachev’s Farewell Address. The New York Times, December 25, 1991.
http://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/26/world/end-of-the-soviet-union-text-of-gorbachev-s-farewell-address.html?pagewanted=all Accessed February 10, 2018;
• The Guardian View on Trump’s National Security Strategy: a Veneer of Credibility. The Guardian, December 19, 2017.https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/dec/19/the-guardian-view-on-trumps-national-security-strategy-a-veneer-of-credibility Accessed May 18, 2018;
• Traynor Ian, Barack Obama: no Cold War over Crimea. The Guardian, March 26, 2014.
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/26/obama-no-cold-war-crimea Accessed March 7, 2018;
• Trump Declines to Add Sanctions Against Russians, Contradicting Haley. The New York Times, April 16, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/16/us/politics/trump-rejects-sanctions-russia-syria.html Accessed April 16, 2018;
• Walters Joanna, Barack Obama Singles out Koch Brothers over Fossil Fuel Lobbying. The Guardian, August 25, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/aug/25/barack-obama-warns-fossil-fuelled-opponents-he-has-clean-energy-to-spare Accessed May 2, 2018;
• Wintour Patrick, ‘It’s an Honor to Be With You’ – Trump and Putin Meet at G20 in Hamburg. The Guardian, July 7, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/07/donald-trump-and-putin-exchange-handshake-at-g20-summit-in-hamburg Accessed March 15, 2018;
• Wintour Patrick, Trump-Putin Meeting Dominates G20 as Russia Denies Interfering in US Election. The Guardian, July 7, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jul/07/trump-putin-meeting-dominates-g20-as-russia-denies-interfering-in-us-election Accessed March 17, 2018;
• Yeltsin’s Resignation speech. BBC News, December 31, 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6584973.stm Accessed February 14, 2018.
II.II Online publications
• Carafano James, Explaining the Obama National Security Strategy. The Daily Signal, May 28, 2010.https://www.dailysignal.com/2010/05/28/explaining-the-obama-national-security-strategy/ Accessed April 26, 2018;
• Carden James W., Trump Ran as a Foreign-policy Realist. Instead He’s Become Another Interventionist Neocon. Quarts, May 4, 2017. https://qz.com/975848/trump-ran-as-a-foreign-policy-realist-instead-hes-become-another-interventionist-neocon/ Accessed May 15, 2018;
• Clubb Edmund O., What the “Pacific Doctrine” Overlooks. Stanford University: Hoover Institution Archives, 1979, pp. 43-47. https://carnegiecouncil-media.storage.googleapis.com/files/v19_i009_a013.pdf Accessed February 5, 2018;
• Dotinga Randy, «Roosevelt and Stalin» Details the Surprisingly Warm Relationship of an Unlikely Duo. The Christian Science Monitor, March 5, 2015. https://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2015/0305/Roosevelt-and-Stalin-details-the-surprisingly-warm-relationship-of-an-unlikely-duo Accessed January 18, 2018;
• Gaddis John Lewis, “Strategies of Containment, Past and Future.” Hoover institution, April 30, 2001.
https://www.hoover.org/research/strategies-containment-past-and-future Accessed May 16, 2018;
• Goldberg Jeffrey, The Obama Doctrine: The U.S. president talks through his hardest decisions about America’s role in the world. The Atlantic, April, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/04/the-obama-doctrine/471525/ Accessed April 27, 2018;
• Holmes Kim, Carafano James, Defining the Obama Doctrine, Its Pitfalls, and How to Avoid Them. The Heritage Foundation, September 1, 2010. https://www.heritage.org/global-politics/report/defining-the-obama-doctrine-its-pitfalls-and-how-avoid-them Accessed April 27, 2018;
• Husain Hammad, 6 Inspiring Leadership Traits of Barack Obama. TaskQue, January 23, 2017. https://blog.taskque.com/leadership-traits-barack-obama/ Accessed May 15, 2018;
• Jacobson Louis, Kruzel John, Has Donald Trump ‘been much tougher on Russia’ than Barack Obama?. Politifact, February 20, 2018. http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2018/feb/20/donald-trump/has-donald-trump-been-much-tougher-russia-barack-o/ Accessed April 2, 2018;
• Manaev Georgy, Why did Russia sell Alaska to the United States?. Russia Beyond, history, April 21, 2014. https://www.rbth.com/arts/2014/04/20/why_did_russia_sell_alaska_to_the_united_states_36061.html Accessed January 13, 2018;
• McGough Annelise, The French President Gave America the Climate Change Speech that Trump Never Will. Grist, April 26, 2018. https://grist.org/briefly/the-french-president-gave-america-the-climate-change-speech-that-trump-never-will/ Accessed May 7, 2018;
• Șandru Daniel, “Ideology, Between the Concept and the Political Reality”, The Knowledge Based Society Project, March 10, 2013. http://www.sferapoliticii.ro/sfera/169/art09-Sandru.php Accessed May 17, 2018;
• Stalin J., Defects in Party Work and Measures for Liquidating Trotskyite and Other Double Dealers: Report to the Plenum of the Central Committee of the RKP(b), March 3, 1937. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1937/03/03.html Accessed May 15, 2018;
• Tarpley Webster G., U.S. Civil War: The US-Russian Alliance that Saved the Union (April 11, 2011 // Washington D.C.: Voltaire Network, 2011. http://www.voltairenet.org/article169488.html Accessed December 23, 2017;
• Turner Phillip, Partners in Emancipation: How Russia Helped End American Slavery. The Blue Review, May 3, 2014. https://thebluereview.org/how-russia-helped-end-american-slavery/ Accessed January 13, 2018;
• United States Relations with Russia: Establishment of Relations to World War Two. Archive of the Office of the Historian. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/85739.htm Accessed January 17, 2018;
• Yegorov Oleg, What role did Russia play in the U.S. Civil War? // Russia beyond, August 16, 2017. https://www.rbth.com/politics_and_society/2017/08/16/what-role-did-russia-play-in-the-us-civil-war_823252 Accessed January 5, 2018.
III._Interviews
• Hillary Clinton: Trump A Clear And Present Danger To Our Country. RealClearPolitics, September 15, 2017. https://www.realclearpolitics.com/video/2017/09/15/hillary_clinton_trump_a_clear_and_present_danger_to_our_country.html Accessed May 18, 2018;
• Interview of Vladimir Putin with Time Magazine. Kremlin: Official Internet Resources of the President of Russia, December 19, 2007. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/24735 Accessed February 20, 2018;
• Obama: Don’t Stay in Iraq Over Genocide (July 20, 2007) // the Associated Press, July 20, 2007.http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/20/AR2007072000831.html Accessed April 27, 2018;
• Read Excerpts From Senator Bob Corker’s Interview With The Times. The New York Times, Politics, October 9, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/09/us/politics/bob-corker-trump-interview-transcript.html Accessed May 20, 2018.
LITERATURE
I. Monographs
• Barnes H., Standing on a Volcano: The Life and Times of David Rowland Francis. St. Louis: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001, p. 503;
• Baylis, J., Smith S., The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 636;
• Bush G.W., Decision points. Washington DC: Crown Publishers, 2010, p. 497;
• Fedorova Ekaterina V., Abrogation of the Russian-American Trade Treaty of 1832 and the U.S. Press, Saint-Petersburg: School of International Relations, 2014, p. 20;
• Fukuyama F., The End of History and the Last Man. Toronto: Maxwell Macmillan International, 1992, p. 446;
• Goldgeier James M., McFaul M., Power and Purpose: U.S. Policy toward Russia after the Cold War. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2003, p. 450;
• Gooler Darrel L., The Nixon Doctrine – Is There a Role for the U.S. Army? Carlisle: US Army War College, 1973, p. 89;
• Grandin Greg, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 237;
• Gray Colin S., Hard Power and Soft Power: The Utility of Military Force as an Instrument of Policy in the XXI Century. Carlisle: Strategic Studies Institute, 2011, p.78;
• Herz John H., Political Realism and Political Idealism: A Study in Theories and Realities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951, p. 275;
• Kasparov G., Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped: London: Atlantic Books, 2015, p. 290;
• Klein Naomi, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2007, p. 672;
• Legvold R., Russian Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century and the Shadow of the Past. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 544;
• Link Arthur S., Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World, 1913-1921. North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 1982, p. 235;
• Litwak Robert S., Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment After the Cold War. Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2000, p. 290;
• Matsumura Masayoshi, Ruxton I., Baron Kaneko and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05): A Study in the Public Diplomacy of Japan. Morrisville: Lulu Press, Inc., 2009, p. 510;
• Mearsheimer, John J., Disorder Restored. In Rethinking America’s Security. New York: Norton Graham A. & Treverton G., 1992, pp. 213-237;
• Mearsheimer John J., The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: Norton Graham A. & Treverton G., 2001, p. 160;
• Meiertöns Heiko, The Doctrines of US Security Policy: An Evaluation under International Law. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 314;
• Primakov Y., Years in Big Politics. Camberley: The Conflict Studies Research Centre, 2000, p. 445;
• Stent Angela E., The Limits of Partnership: US-Russian Relations in the Twenty-first Century. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2014, p. 355;
• Waltz Kenneth N., Theory of International Politics. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1979, p. 251;
• Yeltsin B. translated. by Fitzpatrick C., Midnight Diaries. New York: Public Affairs, 2000, p. 398.
II._Articles
• Dvoichenko-Markov Eufrosina, Americans in the Crimean War. Moscow: The Russian Review, Vol. 13, No.2, 1957, pp. 137-145;
• Golder Frank A., Catherine II and The American Revolution. The American Historical Review, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Oct., 1915), pp. 92-96;
• Hapner, S., Woodrow Wilson’s Ideological War: American Intervention in Russia, 1918-1920. Ohio: Best Integrated Writing, 2015, pp. 143-158;
• Kennan George F., “The Sources of Soviet Conduct”, Foreign Affairs an American Quarterly Review vol. 25 no. 4 (1947), pp. 566-582;
• Robert J., “Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma.” World Politics, vol. 30, no. 2, January 1978, pp. 167-214.
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