Спортивная дипломатия Норвегии и Финляндии: сравнительный анализ
Целью исследования является сравнение спортивной дипломатии Норвегии и Финляндии. Спортивная дипломатия, будучи по своей сути уникальным явлением, может оказывать значительное влияние на мировую ситуацию, международные отношения и может быть частью внешней политики государства. Для решения поставленной цели исследования был применен комплекс дополняющих друг друга методов исследования. Основные используемые методы – метод сравнительного анализа и метод интервью.
Источниковой базой исследования послужили три интервью с представителями различных спортивных ведомств Норвегии и Финляндии. Помимо интервью, были изучены национальные и международные документы по спортивной политике для получения достаточной информации. Через эти источники исследовались место и роль спортивной дипломатии в исследуемых странах.
Результаты данного исследования показывают, что у стран нет конкретных документов и институтов в области спортивной дипломатии. В национальных документах подчеркивается, что международные спортивные проекты могут положительно повлиять на отношения между странами-участницами, указывается важность развития спорта для всех. Финляндия считает спорт частью национального бренда и поэтому может использовать спорт для продвижения своего имиджа и ценностей. А это, в свою очередь, позволяет говорить о потенциальном использовании спортивной дипломатии. Норвегия видит потенциал спортивной дипломатии как способа представить страну на международных соревнованиях и, следовательно, привлечь к ней внимание. Норвегия также может использовать преимущества спортивной дипломатии для закрепления своей роли стороннего посредника в международных конфликтах и расширения пула возможных инструментов для разрешения конфликтов. Международное сотрудничество для стран является важным источником передачи знаний и передового опыта между странами и спортивными организациями.
Данное исследование представляет собой всесторонний анализ спортивной дипломатии в Финляндии и Норвегии. Проведен сравнительный анализ спортивной дипломатии Финляндии и Норвегии и предложены перспективы ее развития. Данная работа может быть использована как основа для дальнейшего рассмотрения спортивной дипломатии стран, а также для более узкого изучения проблемы (на примере сравнения отдельных регионов, видов спорта). Значение исследования также заключается в определении ключевых институтов, ответственных за развитие спортивной дипломатии в Финляндии и Норвегии, в попытке найти методы оценки эффективности спортивной дипломатии, а также в возможности использования рекомендаций внешних агентств Финляндия и Норвегия в целях продвижения имиджа стран с помощью спортивной дипломатии.
Research Rationale
Since the XX century sport is becoming an increasingly important part of international political processes. In the modern world, it is already difficult to say that sport stands aside from politics, on the contrary, we can say that it is in the service of the state, playing an important role in its promotion on the world stage, it can also be considered as an instrument of political influence.
Interhuman problems have a special place in modern international relations. In this regard, the role of sports diplomacy is increasing, the main goal of which is to establish and strengthen friendly relations, cooperation and understanding between people and nations through sports.
Sports diplomacy is a part of the country’s cultural and public diplomacy. Major international sports competitions serve to enhance mutual understanding, demonstrate the unity of aspirations of different peoples. The level of training of athletes, their desire to win, the ability not only to win, but also to meet failures with dignity – all of this is a contribution to the formation of a positive image of the state. It has great prospects and significant potential, which sets it apart from other types of cooperation. The rich sports heritage of the countries makes the possibility of cooperation in the field of sports very relevant.
The term sports diplomacy has relatively recently entered the political lexicon, and therefore it seems important to pay close attention to it, since, being inherently an interesting phenomenon, it can have a significant impact on the world situation, international relations and foreign policy of states generally.
Thus, the relevance of this topic is explained by the need to study sports diplomacy as a relatively new and promising direction of foreign policy; the importance of searching for new forms of cooperation, as well as the possibility of using the potential of sports diplomacy for the development of sustainable relations.
The scientific contribution of this research consists in a comprehensive analysis of the sports diplomacy of selected countries and the generalization of material on this topic. A comparative analysis of sports diplomacy of countries was carried out, the main differences and prospects were identified.
Theoretical significance. This work can be used as a basis for further study of the sports diplomacy of countries, as well as for a narrower study of the problem (by the example of comparing individual regions, sports events, etc.).
The practical significance is in identifying the key institutions responsible for the development of sports diplomacy in countries, an attempt to study anti-doping policy as a part of sports diplomacy, as well as in the possibility of using recommendations by external departments in order to promote the image with the help of sports diplomacy.
• Theoretical Framework and Literature Review
The theoretical basis of this research is the theory of neoliberalism. According to this theory, actors in international relations besides states, are various international governmental and non-governmental organizations, public associations, as well as individuals. Also, significant attention is paid to the development of international cooperation. According to supporters of the theory of neoliberalism, such as Grix, Houlihan, Miller among others the range of topical foreign policy issues has become wider and more diverse. The liberal approach is more interested in the interaction of states in times of peace. It is also allows for considering many new diplomatic tools, such as public diplomacy, digital diplomacy, diplomacy 2.0, economic diplomacy, and sports diplomacy as well. It also considers the diversity of actors, including sports and its institutions, which makes it possible to conduct research within this paradigm.
The concept of soft power helps to achieve better understanding of the thesis topic. The idea that sport is one of the constituent parts that can form a positive image of the state abroad can be viewed through the concept of “soft power” developed by Joseph Nye. According to this concept, the strength of the state in the framework of foreign policy is not always equal to its military power. In modern realities, non-force methods of spreading influence are of much greater value when it comes to achieving the necessary results. (Nye, 2004).
Previous studies on similar topic have examined the links between sports and various parts of politics, international relations, and diplomacy. In the work by N. Bogolyubova and Y. Nikolaeva (2019), Associate Professors of the Department of International Humanitarian Relations, St. Petersburg State University, theoretical aspects of sports diplomacy are disclosed, and practical approaches to its implementation are analyzed on the example of various states and international organizations. The book focuses on the sports diplomacy in modern international relations and foreign policy. The authors consider sports diplomacy through the prism of the soft power. To study the theoretical foundations of sports diplomacy, the works of Russian and foreign researchers are analyzed.
In works of Professor of Sport Policy in the School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences at Loughborough University Barrie Houlihan (Houlihan, Zheng, 2015), it is stated that sport is one of the possible tools of soft power which can be used by states in its domestic and foreign policy.
Associate Professor at Bond University in Australia Stuart Murray and Research Associate at University of Pretoria Geoffrey Pigman (Murray, 2011; Murray, Pigman, 2014) made an attempt to analyze the convergence between international sport and diplomacy. Also, sports diplomacy is presented as a result of the interaction of both state and non-state actors. (Murray, Pigman, 2014). Murray also argues that sports diplomacy is increasing in practical recognition but there is a debate on should diplomacy and sport mix. The debate is still going on because there is no theoretical definition of the term in the diplomatic studies. Murray argues that an in-depth understanding of sports diplomacy in theory can contribute to its wider practical use and therefore form a strong relationship between sport and diplomacy. (Murray, 2011).
Professor Steve Jackson from University of Otago (Jackson 2008; Jackson, Haigh, 2013) indicates that sport is associated with the promotion of image and culture of the states abroad and linked with different spheres, including economy and politics. He argues that sport takes a controversial position when it comes to its use in the context of politics. While there are many instances where sport has been seen as a means of preventing conflict and fostering better understanding, there are also many instances where sport has not only exacerbated conflict, but also served as a source of it. The author attempts to designate the features of sport as an object of culture and diplomatic practice; review some of the crucial aspects and shortcomings of the use of sport as a diplomatic tool; and designs an analysis of modern sports organizations and events to find out the consequences of the transition between state diplomacy and “corporate diplomacy.”
Professor of Sports Policy, Manchester Metropolitan University Jonathan Grix (Grix, Lee, 2013; Grix, 2013; Grix, Brannagan & Houlihan, 2015) studies sports mega events. Using the case-studies he highlights and analyzes how sports mega-events contribute to the increasing role of big developing countries in world politics. In his work, he finds out the reasons why developing countries host sports mega-events and what this phenomenon says about the importance of the Olympic Games and the World Cup in world affairs. (Grix, Brannagan & Houlihan, 2015). He takes three cases: The 2008 Olympics, which took place in Beijing, the 2010 World Cup held in South Africa, and the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympics hosted by Brazil. Grix argues that organization of sports mega-events can be seen as a practice of state public diplomacy, aimed at demonstrating the possibilities of soft power, and at their further development. He argues that the Olympic Games represent the most political sporting event of all.
• Research Questions
The aim of the study is to compare sports diplomacy of Norway and Finland. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:
• Analyze the theoretical framework of sports diplomacy.
• Define the place and role of sports diplomacy in the politics of Norway and Finland.
• Find out the main mechanisms for the implementation of sports diplomacy in Norway and Finland.
• Identify the role of anti-doping in sports diplomacy in Norway and Finland.
• Data Collection and Methodology
Legislation or related documents were analyzed in order to establish the place and role of sport and sports diplomacy in the foreign policy of countries. Act on the promotion of sports and physical activity (390/2015), which is the main Act in Finland on sports policy, was analyzed to find out the responsibilities of and cooperation of the government administrative bodies in the field of sports and physical activity.
To identify the official position, as well as to obtain additional comments on existing problems, the speeches of top officials, ministers of sports and persons responsible for holding international sports events in the countries were analyzed. The speeches were taken from the official websites of the organizations, as well as from the websites of the respective structures and media. This was also applicable to the statements of the outstanding sportspersons, for example, to see the difference in the positions on the “Johaug case” and on the doping in general.
The next group of sources was composed of organizational and administrative documents. These documents make it possible to assess the degree of implementation of sports diplomacy of these countries at the moment. In addition, by studying these sources, it was possible to identify the similarities and differences in the goals and objectives of sports diplomacy of these countries. Such documents as reports from Ministries on Promoting Sport and Physical Activity in Finland (2020), Finland’s Country Brand Report (2017), Idretten Vil! Langtidsplan for Norsk Idrett 2019–2023 (2019) and Den norske idrettsmodellen (2012) allow us to see the potential and distinctive features of the sports diplomacy of the respective countries.
Statistical indicators such as, for example, the statistics of the National Anti-Doping Agencies, as well as the results of countries ‘participation in major sports competitions, reveal problematic and promising areas of countries’ sports diplomacy. Also, some statistical data was used to create a table on countries’ sports diplomacy success. This table can be found in Appendix B.
This work uses the following principles of scientific research. The principle of determinism is the principle of cause – effect relationships of all phenomena of reality; the principle of consistency, which determines the essence of phenomena as internally connected components of an integral system: natural, social, mental. This principle allows to analyze the phenomenon within the framework of an integral complex of interrelated elements. Within the framework of this study, the system is sports diplomacy, and its elements are the policies of states in the field of physical culture and sports, the activities of international organizations and the international sports movement, etc. The principle of alternativeness is also used, which determines the likelihood of an event occurring on the basis of an analysis of objective realities and possibilities. This allows to see the untapped opportunities in the process, to learn lessons for the future. The use of the principle of comprehensiveness involves the consideration and explanation of the phenomenon under study, not only in order to obtain complete information, but also the analysis of all its sides and aspects. Thus, this study analyzes the approaches to the sports diplomacy definition in both countries, identifies the general and distinctive features of its implementation.
To solve the set tasks, a complex of methodological principles was used. Analysis and synthesis were applied to obtain a complete and comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study. One of the main principles was the comparison, which was used to identify differences in the definition of the concept of sports diplomacy, ways of its implementation. The generalization was used to form the final conclusion on the work. A combination of historical and logical analysis is the most effective for identifying a holistic picture of events. The historical-chronological principle was used to analyze the development of politics in the field of sports. To determine the need for some reforms, explanation the motives of the behavior of historical figures was used.
• Thesis Structure
The work consists of 7 chapters, a list of used sources and literature and appendices. The first chapter provides an introduction to the work, describes its purpose and objectives, briefly presents the methods and main research literature on the topic. In the second chapter, the literature review is presented in more detail, divided into groups corresponding to the topic of the thesis. The third chapter presents the theoretical part of the work, outlines the main approaches and fundamental principles of sports diplomacy. The fourth chapter describes the main methods and how they were implemented in the thesis. Chapters 5 and 6 are directly devoted to the practical side of the problem, they describe the historical events that determined the direction of sports diplomacy in Norway and Finland, its current state. As a case-study, Chapter 6 analyzes the anti-doping policy, establishes a connection between sports diplomacy and anti-doping policy, identifies differences and development prospects. Chapter 7 summarizes and draws conclusions on the set goals and objectives.
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